A Critical Evaluation of Your Learning and Development Whilst on Work Assignment

A Critical Evaluation of Your Learning and Development Whilst on Work Placement - Assignment Example The main aim of the module is to enable learning from the entire work experience that includes a focus on knowledge from the workplace and generic skills. These comprise of: induction programs, understanding organizational structures, learning through induction, personal development and critical analysis (Peter, 2009). Much of my educational learning is about gaining of subject knowledge and development the critical and analytical skills related to my subject. This is a very important fact; however, what is also vital is that I can apply this academic knowledge and, more exclusively, the kinds of thinking skills I gained through education to a more practical context of work (Sammon, 2008). With ever changing knowledge, I also need to be very practical and adaptable so as to cope with these demands. Therefore, this module is generally aimed to help me: develop my personal and key skills, increase my employability skills, improve on my strengths and weakness, become a reflective practi tioner, be able to utilize effectively transfer of skills, become an autonomous learner and finally to be able to learn by experience. MODULE STRUCTURE 1) Learning through self-awareness 1.1) knowing and understanding my learning style There are numerous means that a person can learn. The more can be able to understand our preferences to learn, including developing and practicing various ways of learning and hence the more we become effective learners in different contexts (Peter, 2009). According to Kolb (1984), as we grow up, we build up tendencies and preferences to learn new things in some specific way, without essentially noticing that it is so. My learning style is basically linked to Kolb’s four stages of learning as shown below: 1having a strong experience doing 4. Testing planning 3. Conceptulizing 2.reflection/ observation review To be a more effective learner I would wish to improve on these selected areas. 1.2 Personal and key skills Many generic skills are for ef fectiveness at work or daily lives, for instance problem solving, good communication, time management, setting goals. It is actually important to continue to develop your skills at greater levels and in new situations (Sammon, 2008). Personal and key skills self evaluation 1 2 3 4 justification Self management a. Time management b. Dealing with criticism c. Professional responsibility d. Meeting of the objectives, standards and priorities e. Clarification of personal values f. Employment potentials Problem solving a. Identification of the problem b. Critical thinking about the problem c. Conceptualization of the issues d. Identification of the options e. Identify possible solutions f. Implementation of the course of action g. Carry out the solution h. Evaluation and adaption of the solutions and outcomes Working with others a. Planning together b. Respecting the values and views of others c. Delegation, d. initiative, e. negotiation, f. lead Communication a. visual/oral competency b . effective listening c. verbal communication Handling of data a. use of media and appropriate technology with IT b. handling of large amount of data c. translation of data into words d. evaluation and adoption of strategies for handling data and information e. use of sources of information KEY: 1) started but needs more practice 2) able to do if there is some assistance 3) proficient without assistance 4) proficient and able to help others 1.3 strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis This entails an honest and critical reflection of my strengths, weaknesses and areas that I need to develop. It also contains the opportunities that are

How Women Are Portrayed in Lynx and Cosmo Essay Example for Free

How Women Are Portrayed in Lynx and Cosmo Essay ‘Men act and women appear. Men look at women. Women watch themselves being looked at’ – John Berger, ‘Ways of seeing’. For my research investigation I intend to explore to what extent specific media products use similar representations of women to appeal to their target audiences. The examples I have chosen to focus on are the iconic, international women’s fashion and lifestyle magazine ‘Cosmopolitan’ and Lynx’s controversial ‘beach campaign’. I will therefore be exploring what similarities and differences they embed due to their oppositional target audiences and content. Throughout my research the main theory I will be linking to my texts is that of Laura Mulvey, her theory explores ideas of sexism and male gaze within the media industry. Hearst the publisher of Cosmopolitan describes the magazine’s target audience as ‘Fun, Fearless Females’, the alliteration of the ‘F’ sound connotes a sense of attitude and fierce behaviour. Alongside the brand proposition ‘celebrates†¦a passion for life and inspires young women to be the best they can be’ consciously supporting women by portraying a sense of empowerment and ambition. In contrast, Unilever, owners of the Lynx brand state their brand prospect is that all their products are ‘designed to give our customers the edge in the mating game’ establishing itself as ‘UK’s leading male grooming brand!’. Cosmopolitan are iconic for telling their audience about two main topics; lifestyle and sex. Just by looking at the magazine covers, it is clear that these two topics dominate. I researched the April 2012 cover of Cosmopolitan, it follows the generic conventions of a typical magazine format for a women’s fashion and lifestyle magazine. In terms of the colour scheme the pink fonts and neutral clothing convey a sense of femininity and perhaps the everyday domestic lifestyle of women, although the lifestyle aspect of the magazine seems overpowered by the topic of sex. The cover features an attractive women – in this case the iconic Megan Fox, posing some mildly alluring body language, showing a lot of skin, all whilst looking directly at the camera (audience) with a sexy, serious facial expression with the eyebrow promiscuously raised, and suggestive parted lips. Although the model is simply posing the latest fashion, the low cut, tightly fitting dress connotes an over sexualised view of the celebrity who is universally known as a sex symbol in the media world, taking her place in FHM’s sexiest women each year and continuously playing the role of the sexy female in various popular films. It is clear that Cosmopolitan use bold sexual connotations surrounding women, although argue that their intentions are in fact to empower women through their sexuality. Notice the models strong body language , the hand on hip look used alongside taglines such as ‘Naughty or nice? You decide†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢, and sexual puns are even added in regarding none sexual subjects such as career advice ‘You on top’, these are bold sexual connotations implying that woman should dominate to get what they want, mostly regarding the topic of sex. Perhaps fighting the controversial debate of sexism towards women in media by surprisingly embracing La ura Mulvey’s theory of ‘male gaze’. Cosmo put across the idea that if men find women attractive then it should accredit them by making them feel good about themselves, knowing that they look sexy and attractive. The magazine are conscious to do this in a sophisticated manor, opposed to other trashy and over sexualised magazines. Mediaknowall.com state that ‘Women’s magazines have moved on and offer visions of independence and confidence as well as beauty and domestic concerns, yet women are still encouraged to look good’. Body image and size have become a growing issue in society in result of magazine content. The overuse of petite, photo shopped models throughout magazines has resulted in these images becoming the dominant ideology. Over the years images printed in women’s magazines have contributed to this universal feeling to look good and be a certain size. Lynx are known for their voyeuristic product advertisement, this element of the company is what attracts their buyers, yet is also their downfall. Lynx have been publicly criticized for their overuse of objectifying women, using sexualized and provocative imagery and overall blunt sexism. The BBC news state that ‘in 2011 six of Lynx’s advertising campaigns were banned after mass numbers of complains were made’ they added that ‘the 113 complaints said it was sexually suggestive and demeaning to women’. I researched Lynx’s recent TV advertisement and accompanying print advert titled ‘The cleaner you are, the dirtier you get’. Although I believe this is one of Lynx’s milder sexualised adverts even the title itself contains a sexual pun, suggesting the promise of sex if you shower with the product. The girl on the print advertisement is no doubt an attractive young female, fitting the iconic ‘blonde bombshell’ look. The girl’s enticing facial expression creates the impression she is inviting the audience (male) into the shower with her. Although the girl’s expressions look confident, there is a contrast between this and her body language. For example the way she has to cup her bikini top to stop it from falling. This vulnerability of the woman standing half nude for a male audience completely visually depicting her as a female, making her a passive object of male visual pleasure. A comment by Jean Killbourne (a popular media activist) backs up my point by stating that ‘women’s bodies are often dismembered into legs, breasts or thighs, reinforcing the message that women are objects rather than whole human beings’. Killbourne suggests that women have become dehumanised into erotic objects for male pleasure. One element of Lynx’s campaigns which continues throughout is the idea of fake portrayal. In each advert the male role is played by your everyday, not overly-attractive man, contrasted with the female role being a desirable, young beauty. In an everyday world the changes of the male role attracting that type of woman are very slim. Despite this the main message that Lynx put across to their audience throughout their advertisements is that if men wear the product – women will find them irresistible – False portrayal. Of course this element adds humour to the advertisements, although all at the expense of objectifying women in the process and promoting the gender role of the dominant male. Bibliography Websites: www.mediaknowall.com Hearst, http.//www.hearst.co.uk/magazines/Cosmpolitan/5-about.htm Cosmopolitan, http://www.cosmopolitan.com/celebrity/exclusive/megan-fox-april-cover-cosmopolitan Exploring the media: representations and responses

Mechanisms in the Cardiovascular System

Mechanisms in the Cardiovascular System The mechanism of the pumping action of the heart can be categorized in three phases- the generation of an action potential, conduction of the action potential and cardiac muscle contraction (action potential-contraction coupling). The action potential is generated the specialized autorythmic myocardial cells located at the Sino atria (SA) node. The potential spreads to the atria and enters the ventricles through the atria ventricular (AV) node from where it is conducted throughout the ventricles by the bundle of His and the purkinje fiber. The action potential triggers muscle contraction as it sweeps around the heart1. As the cardiac muscles contract and relax the heart beats repeatedly, in the process receiving and pumping blood, first to the lungs then to the rest of the body. As it leaves the heart, the blood carries with it oxygen and nutrients to the body and brings back metabolic wastes from the body cells 1, 2. However, much as it supplies blood to the rest of the body, the heart itself needs blood to support its metabolic activity. The heart is thus supplied by the coronary arteries which branch off from the aorta. Reduction in the volume of this coronary flow can greatly impair the pumping action of the heart and if not treated, can cause heart failure. A number of treatment options ranging from surgical to drugs are available2b. THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM The cardiovascular system is an organ system responsible for distribution of nutrients and oxygen to the bodys cells and removal of metabolic byproducts from the cells. It consists of the following: Blood which carries nutrients and oxygen to the cells and metabolic byproducts away from the cells The blood vessels which are the pathways through which blood flows The heart which receives and pumps blood. Embedded in the heart are valves that control blood flow and ensure that blood flows in a specified direction3,8. THE HEART In brief, the heart is a muscular organ enclosed in a double walled sack called the pericardium. It is about the size of a fist and weighs between 250 grams and 350 grams. It is located within the medial cavity of the thorax between the second and fifth intercostal space, just on the superior surface of the diaphragm, anterior to the vertebral column and posterior to the sternum7. The heart is divided in four chambers, the right and left atria, the right and left ventricle. The circulation process is such that the right atrium receives blood from the rest of the body through the venacavea and feeds it to the right ventricle which pumps it to the lungs through the pulmonary artery to be oxygenated. Blood from the lungs comes back to the left atrium through the pulmonary vein and finally to the left ventricle. The left ventricle pumps blood to the rest of the body though the aorta and arteries7,1. The Mechanism of Heart function The most important function of the heart is to pump blood. The mechanism by which the heart pumps blood can be understood by examining the events that lead to cardiac muscle contraction. The contraction process starts with the generation of an action potential from the sinoatrial (SA) node giving rise to a depolarization wave. The wave spreads through the atria, entering the ventricles through the atrioventricular (AV) node and is conducted throughout the ventricles by the bundle of His and the purkinje fibers1. Generation of action potential. The heart is composed of two kinds of cardiac muscle cells- the contractile and autorythmic cells. The contractile cells are responsible for the mechanical work of pumping and therefore form the bulk of the cardiac muscles. However, these cells need to be excited before they can contract. Highly specialized autorythmic cells are responsible for generation and conduction of the excitation signal-the action potential1,3. These autorythmic cells are found in specific regions of the heart that include: The SA node. This is a small region located at the upper wall of the right atrium. The AV node. This is a bundle of the autorythmic cells found at the lower wall of the right atrium, near the septum that separates the atria from the ventricles. The bundle of His. This is a bundle of specialized conductive cells that originate from the AV node and runs down the septum between the ventricles. It separates into the right and left bundles serving the respective ventricles. The purkinje fiber. These can be regarded as terminations of the bundle of His. They spread over the base of the ventricles.The locations of the autorythmic cells are the origin and pathways of the action potential3. The cardiac action potential The SA node is the pace maker of the heart. It sets the frequency at which the heart beats. Looking at the cardiac cell, the action potential starts by the reorganization of the intracellular and extracellular concentration of potassium, sodium, chloride and calcium ions due to changes in the cell membrane permeability. A graph showing a typical myocardial cell action potential is shown in figure 1 below. Figure 1: Cardiac cell action potential. Source4: As in the graph, the different phases represent different stages of depolarization of the cardiac cell. Phase 4: In this phase, the cell is at rest. In the resting state, the cell membrane is more permeable to potassium and therefore the resting potential is more or less equal to the potassium equilibrium potential (-90mV). Phase 0: As the potential slowly rises, the voltage-gated sodium channels open leading to a rapid influx of potassium into the cell causing rapid depolarization. At the same time, the membrane permeability to potassium slowly reduces as the potassium channels close. This process takes the membrane potential to around +20Mv before the sodium channels suddenly close. Phase 1: On inactivation of the sodium channels, potassium continues to leak out of the cell and chloride ions go into the cell causing a small downward deflection of the action potential. Phase 2: At this stage, there is increased permeability of the membrane to calcium ions. The inward calcium movement is balanced by an outward movement of potassium ions accounting for the relatively flat phase 2. Phase 3: An increase in the permeability of potassium outweighs the inward calcium current and eventually tips the potential of the cell. This is the repolarization phase and the cell goes back to its resting potential, phase 43,4. Excitation-contraction coupling As described in muscle contraction, the action potential-contraction coupling is due to the release of calcium from the cells sarcoplasmic reticulum. The calcium combines with troponin which regulates the tropomyosin, removing it from the binding site. This allows myosin to bind to actin thus making the muscle to contract3. The cardiac cycle The depolarization and repolarization of the cardiac cell described above triggers the contraction and relaxation to the atria and ventricles of the cell. The cardiac cycle is divided in two main phases, diastole which is the period of relaxation and systole which is the period of contraction. Systole. During this phase, the depolarization wave starts from the SA node, spreading first through the atria and causing the atria to contact first. This forces blood from the atria to the ventricles. At this time, the atrioventricular valves are open while the pulmonary and aortic valves are closed. The depolarization wave then enters the ventricles through the AV node, spreading over all the ventricles via the specialized conductive bundle of His and the purkinje network. This causes the ventricles to contract forcing the blood to the lungs through the pulmonary vein and the rest of the body through the aorta. Here the atrioventricular valves close while the pulmonary and aortic valves open5,3. Diastole. After contraction of the atria, the cells are repolarized. This allows the atria to relax thus allowing blood to flow into them through the vena cavea. After the ventricular contraction, the ventricles also relax awaiting to be filled with blood from the atria5. THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM The circulatory system is part of the cardiovascular system and is divided into the pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation. The pulmonary circulation transports deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and returns oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart9. The systemic circulation transports oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body and brings back deoxygenated blood from the body back to the heart9. Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium from the vena cava and flows through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. It is pumped from the right ventricle through the  pulmonary semilunar valve  into the pulmonary arteries which go to the lungs. Oxygenated blood returns via the pulmonary veins and enters the left ventricle through the mitral valve. It is the pumped through the aortic valve, to the aorta then through the arteries to the rest of the body. It is evident that oxygen is very important in metabolic activity of the body cells 3,9. Transport of oxygen by the cardiovascular system The red blood cells. One of the functions of the cardiovascular system is to distribute oxygen around the body. Oxygen is carried in blood by the red blood cells. Understanding the structure of the red blood cells will help us to understand how it is able to carry oxygen. The molecule of a red blood cell is composed of four polypeptide chains with each polypeptide chain having an iron-containing heme group. Each of the four iron atoms can combine reversibly with oxygen according to the equation: O2+Hbà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬ HbO2. It is therefore possible that each molecule of hemoglobin can carry up to four molecules of oxygen1b,2b. Oxygen uptake Blood is pumped from the right ventricle to the lungs to be oxygenated. In the alveoli, the partial pressure of oxygen is higher than that in the blood and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the alveoli is lower than that in the blood. The pressure differences make it possible for oxygen to diffuse from the alveoli to the blood, thus binding to the iron in the hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide on the other hand diffuses from the blood to the lungs. Carrying oxygen, blood is returned to the left atria then to the left ventricle which pumps it to the rest of the body2c. Oxygen release: In the tissues and organs, the cells are undergoing metabolism, continually consuming oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide. This means that the intracellular partial pressure of oxygen is lower than that in the blood and the intracellular partial pressure of carbon dioxide is higher than that in the blood. Again the pressure differences make it possible for oxygen to diffuse from the blood to the cells and carbon dioxide from the cells to the blood, binding again with the iron in the hemoglobin. Therefore, as blood flows around the body, it continually distributes oxygen2c,6. BLOOD SUPPLY TO THE HEART Coronary flow In order to perform its functions, the heart an abundant supply of oxygen and nutrients and therefore needs a dedicated supply of blood. Coronary circulation is that part of the systemic circulation that provides blood supply to the heart. Just as the aorta leaves the left ventricle, it gives of the right and left coronary arteries9. The left coronary artery divides into smaller braches supplying blood to the apex and the posterior side of the heart, the ventricles and part of the anterior interventricular septum, the left atrium and posterior wall of the left ventricle. The right coronary artery supplies the lateral aspect of the right atrium and ventricle, the posterior wall of both ventricles and the SA node9,10. Effect of reduced coronary flow on cardiac function The energy demand of the cardiac muscle is so crucial that an interruption of blood supply to any part of the myocardium can cause necrosis within minutes9. A decrease in coronary flow to levels below normal is called myocardial ischemia. The ischemia can be caused by vascular spasms of the coronary arteries, atherosclerosis or increased activity of the heart beyond levels that the coronary arteries can supply10. Temporary or reversible obstruction of coronary blood flow can cause chest pain known as angina pectoris9. Chronic myocardial ischemia can lead to myocardial infarction where myocardial cells die and are replaced by scar tissue. Reduced coronary flow therefore can affect cardiac function in several ways. If the heart is not able to meet its metabolic demand, it can be understood that it will not be able to pump enough blood to the body. Reduced blood flow to the rest of the body can result in serious physiological and pathological conditions which are beyond the scope of this essay. With the death of some cardiac cells as in the case of chronic ischemia, several other life threatening conditions can arise which affect cardiac function. One of such dangerous conditions is ventricular fibrillation which is an abnormal pulse generation triggered by the damaged myocardial cells. The heart will not be able to pump blood but will just quiver around without any net output. Death can occur within minutes2b,6. Treatment of reduced coronary flow Other immediate effects like ventricular fibrillation caused by reduced coronary flow can be treated by defibrillation. However, the main cause of reduced coronary flow is coronary artery occlusion or restriction and the following treatment options are available: Coronary bypass: This is a surgical technique where the occluded coronary artery is cut and replaced by a new blood vessel, usually a vein taken from somewhere in the patients body2b. Coronary balloon angiography (cardiac catheterization): This is another surgical procedure where a catheter containing a balloon at its tip is passed into the occluded artery. The balloon is enlarged thus stretching the artery and opening it in the process2b. The use vasodilator drugs such as nitroglycerine: These drugs dilate the coronary artery thereby lowering the total peripheral resistance. This reduces the work the heart must do in ejecting blood. This is usually given to people who have already suffered myocardial infarction to reduce the risk of another occurance2b,10. A person at risk of myocardial infarction can be put a low cholesterol, low fat diet to reduce the risk of atherosclerosis and takes aspirin to reduce the risk of blood clot formation. Conclusion The cardiovascular system is one of the most important systems of the body. All the other systems and organs of the body depend on it for supply of oxygen and nutrients and removal of metabolic wastes. The heart acts as a pump to make sure blood is circulated to all parts of the body through pulmonary and systemic circulations9. However, the heart itself needs supply of blood in order to perform its main function of pumping blood and the heart is supplied by the coronary circulation. Reduction in coronary flow means the heart will not be able to meet it metabolic needs and therefore cannot pump enough blood. This can adversely affect normal activity of the body and cause death10. References Sherwood L. Fundamentals of physiology a human perspective. St. Paul Minn: West publishing company; 1991.190-199 1b. Sherwood L. Fundamentals of physiology a human perspective. St. Paul Minn: West publishing company; 1991.263-266 Vander A, Sherman J, Luciano D. Human physiology, the mechanisms of body function, seventh edition. Boston: McGrow-Hill; 1998. 387-389. 2b. Vander A, Sherman J, Luciano D. Human physiology, the mechanisms of body function, seventh edition. Boston: McGrow-Hill; 1998. 374-377. 2c. Vander A, Sherman J, Luciano D. Human physiology, the mechanisms of body function, seventh edition. Boston: McGrow-Hill; 1998. 479-483. Koeppen M B, Stanton A B. Berne and Levy physiology, sixth edition. Philadelphia, PA: Mosby/Elsevier; 2008. 289-303 Serguei Semenov (2009): Lecture notes. Physiological measurements, ecg/pacemakers/defibrillators. Cohen J B, Wood L D. Structure and function of the human body, seventh edition. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins; 2000. 195-204. Vandegriff K.D, Benazzi L, Ripamonti M, Perrella M, Tellier Le Y.C, Zegna A, Winslow R M. Determination of the rate and equilibrium constants for oxygen and carbon monoxide binding to R-state human Hemoglobin,199: The journal of Biological Chemistry ; 266 (26): 17049-17059 Elaine N M, Katja H. Human anatomy and physiology, seventh edition. Menlo Park: Benjamin Cummings; 2007.674-681 Sherwood L. Human physiology: from cells to systems, sixth edition. Belmont, CA: homson/Brooks/Cole; 2007.300-304 Saladin K S. Anatomy and physiology: The unity of form and function, fifth edition. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill Higher Education; 2009.683-755 Stanfield C L, Germann W J, Niles J N, Cannon J G. Principles of human physiology, third edition. San Francisco: Pearson/Benjamin Cummings; 2009. 361-366 Skeletal Muscle Question: Describe the structure of skeletal muscle and how it contracts (90) and discuss a disease that may arise from this system (10) The structure of skeletal muscle and the mechanism of muscle contraction including muscle disease (1553 Words) 1.0 ABSTRACT Skeletal Muscle is a form of fibrous tissue with the fibers arranged parallel to each other. A muscle fiber (cell) is surrounded by the endomysium. A group of these cells is wrapped by fascicles. Bundles of fascicles are covered by the perimysium and bundles of the perimysium are wrapped by the epimysium to form a muscle. The muscle fibers have contractile properties which enable them to move bony levers in order to produce skeletal movement1. The functional unit of the muscle fiber is the sacomere which consists of most importantly, actin and myosin. The actin and myosin are arranged such that during contraction, they can slide over each other thus shortening the muscle2. Muscles suffer from many diseases, one of which is polymyositis. This is an inflammatory myopathy that affects mainly the muscles of the thorax and those around the torso. It affects all age groups but has been noticed mainly in late childhood and early adulthood. The sypmtomps are nonspecific but results in general muscle weakness and the cause, though believed to be an invasion by the white blood cells, is not very clear10. 2.0 The Structure of Skeletal Muscle. In daily life, structures and arrangements of designs are dictated, to a large extent by the purpose and function for which the design is meant for. Knowing that skeletal muscle is made up mainly of fibrous tissues, the arrangement of these tissues and how they are bound together to maintain a particular shape in order to accomplish different purposes (mainly to generate force and produce movement) may to a large extent, define the structure of the muscle4. At a macro level, the skeletal muscle is composed of bundles of individual muscle fibers, the supporting structure called the basal lamina, and the connective tissue sheaths as shown in figure 1. These connective tissues bind the cells together giving them strength and partly providing mechanical protection2. We can examine these connective tissues and their functions as follows: 2.1 The basal lamina. This is an extracellular matrix that acts as a scaffold on which a cell sits. It has been realized that apart from providing structural support, the basal lamina can orient and constrain cell during the process of regeneartion3. 2.2 The endomysium. This is a fine sheath of connective tissue that surrounds each individual muscle cell. The endomysium consist of loosely interlacing fibers composed mainly of collagen4. 2.3 The perimysium and fascilces. The individual muscle fibers wrapped by the endomysium, are grouped together in what is called fascicles. A layer of fibrous tissue called the perimysium wraps each fascicle4. 2.4 The epimysium. This is the outside layer that finally wraps the whole muscle. It is composed of dense irregular connective tissue4. Figure 1 Source: http://www.web-books.com/eLibrary/Medicine/Physiology/Muscular/muscle_structure.jpg 3.0 The muscle cell Having described how individual muscle cells are organized into a muscle, it is imperative that we look at the structural composition of the cell itself. Just like many other cells in the body are specialized according to their functions, skeletal muscle cells are specialized to produce force and movement5. The skeletal muscle fiber is thus composed of mainly three structural elements:-the myofibrils, the sarcoplasmic reticulum and the mitochondria, each contributing a unique aspect of muscle function. The entire function of the muscle can be attributed to the shifts in proportions of these three structures6. 3.1 The Myofibrills. These are cylindrical specialized sub-units within the muscle fiber. They consist of two types of contractile protein filaments-the thin filaments referred to as actin and the thick filaments referred to as myosin. The two most important parameters of the myofibrils are their diameter which determines its strength and the fiber length which determines it contraction velocity and distance over which the fiber can contract. The myofibril consist of two filaments-actin and myosin6,2. 3.1.1 Actin (thin filament). Actin filaments are responsible for regulation of contraction. The actin filament is formed by a helical arranged of actin monomers which is an ambiguous protein2 (figure 2). Because of the helical nature, a long grove is formed along the filament and the protein troponin is located at intervals along the length of the actin filament. It is troponin which is responsible for turning on contraction2,7. Figure 2.The actin molecule. Source: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~sjjgsca/Muscleslidingfilament1.gif 3.1.2 The Myosin (thick filament). Myosin filament is about 150nm long. It has a tail and two heads. The tail is formed by two helical shaped fibers that coil around each other. A collection of several of these helical tails together form a myosin filament (figure 3)4b. Figure 3. The myosin molecule. Source: http://webanatomy.net/anatomy/myosin.jpg. 3.2 The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). Groups of about 200 thick and thin filaments constitute a myofibril. Each myofibril is thus enclosed in a membrane called the sarcoplasmic reticulum8. The SR membrane stores and releases calcium during muscle contraction and relaxation. The SR can therefore be thought of as the functional unit of the myofibril9. 3.3 The mitochondria. Found within the cell cytoplasm, the mitochondria are responsible for generation of most of the cells energy by the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). There are several mitochondria distributed along the length of a myofibril4. 4.0 The mechanism of muscle contraction Muscle contraction can largely be attributed to the structure of actin and myosin, their arrangement within the SR and the interaction between them in order to produce force (Figure 4). This type of arrangement allows the thin actin filaments to slide in and out by the action pull of the myosin heads8b. Figure 4. Actin and myosin arrangement: Source: http://www.exrx.net/Images/ActinMyosin.gif Muscles are composed of a number of actin and myosin filaments arranged in series in a basic unit called the sacomere. The sacomere consists of a thick filament in the meddle and two thin filaments, one overlapping on each side. The heads of the thick filament attach to the thin filament at the overlap and these heads allow movement in only one direction. When activated, each thick filament head rachets repeatedly along the actin, pulling the two actins closer together. Since the actin are attached to the Z line (The distance between two Z lines form the sacomere), ends of the sacomere (Z lines) are pulled in and the sacomere shortens. The sacomeres are arranged in series so that when the muscle fiber contracts, all the sacomeres contract simultaneously transmitting the force to the end of the muscle. The whole process of contraction described above occurs when the muscle is electrically stimulated2b. 5.0 Muscle stimulation. Skeletal muscle cells are stimulated by the motor neurons of the somatic nervous system. The reception of the motor stimulus (action potential) opens the calcium channels allowing calcium which is stored in the SR to be released. The release of calcium causes the release of acetylcholine-Ach (neurotransmitter). The calcium binds to the troponin on the actin filament. Troponin then regulates the tropomyosin which obstructs binding sites for myosin. This allows the tropomyosin to move, unblocking the bonding site. Myosin then binds to the unblocked site on the actin and applies a pull. This will pull the Z bands towards each other thus shortening the sacomere, causing muscle contraction2b. However, as calcium is released, the ATP-dependent calcium pump is activated and it continuously pumps calcium back to the SR to be stored again. This leads to a drop in calcium level within the cytoplasm. When the calcium level is too low, the calcium binding action to troponin is terminated, releasing tropomyosin which again blocks the binding site. This stops the interaction between actin and myosin thus relaxing the muscle2b. 6.0 Muscle Diseases There are a number of muscular diseases and disorders ranging from acquired, familial to congenital. Limiting ourselves to one of the acquired disorders of the muscles, lets look at polymyositis. 6.1 Polymyositis (PM). PM is a type of muscle inflammatory myopathy. Just like the name suggests, this disease causes inflammation of the muscle fiber. Although the causes of the disease are not well understood, it is believed that PM begins when white blood cells, spontaneously invade muscles. This can result in severe muscle weakness. Polymyositis is a persistent disease characterized by periods of increased and reduced or no symptoms. PM affects mainly the muscles of the thorax and is more common in women than men. It is said to affect all age groups although is it commonly noted in early childhood or 20s10. Key pathologic and diagnostic features of the disease. Endomysial inflammation. This is the inflammation of the outer connective tissue that surrounds the muscle fiber. This is done by the white blood cells that leave the blood and enter the tissue, somehow confirming the earlier assertion that the PM begins when white blood cells invade muscles. Invasion of myofibers by autoaggressive lymphocytes. This is when the T lymphocytes begin to attack the intact myofibers. Unlike in muscle dystrophy where inflammation is associated with degenerating myofibers, the invasion of T lymphocytes causes inflammation of health myofibers in PM.This causes inflammation of healthy myofibers. Other diagnostic features that may not be exactly specific to PM include myofiber necrosis, myophagocytosis, myofiber atrophy and fibrosis, a feature of chronic PM10,11. 7.0 Conclusion Human movement is only possible because of the action of muscle contraction. Voluntary contraction of muscle is made possible by the somatic nervous system which sends out an action potential activating the contraction process. The process is accomplished by the sliding of myosin and actin over each other. Many diseases and disorders affect muscles, prominent among them is muscular polymyosis which causes inflammation of the muscles mainly around the torso. Its believed to be caused by the unwanted action of the white blood cells and the symptoms include muscle weakness.

Protein Synthesis Essay -- Protein Synthesis Biology DNA Essays

Protein Synthesis Protein synthesis is one of the most fundamental biological processes. To start off, a protein is made in a ribosome. There are many cellular mechanisms involved with protein synthesis. Before the process of protein synthesis can be described, a person must know what proteins are made out of. There are four basic levels of protein organization. The first is primary structure, followed by secondary structure, then tertiary structure, and the last level is quaternary structure. Once someone understands the makeup of a protein, they can then begin to learn how elements can combine and go from genes to protein. There are two main processes that occur during protein synthesis, or peptide formation. One is transcription and the other is translation. Although these biological processes slightly differ for eukaryotes and prokaryotes, they are the basic mechanisms for which proteins are formed in all living organisms. There are four main levels of a protein, which make up its native conformation. The first level, primary structure, is just the basic order of all the amino acids. The amino acids are held together by strong peptide bonds. The next level of protein organization is the secondary structure. This is where the primary structure is repeated folded so that it takes up less space. There are two types of folding, the first of which is beta-pleated sheets, where the primary structure would resemble continuous spikes forming a horizontal strip. The seco...

Analysis of Hume’s Critique of Causation Essay -- Philosophy Philosoph

Analysis of Hume’s Critique of Causation Sometimes it is hard to be sure what conclusion to draw from a Humean analysis, and he is easy to misrepresent. This is partly because one argument he is engaged in may raise a number of related issues that he has dealt with elsewhere, and some of his points seem contradictory. My wish is to consider some of the possible readings of David Hume’s critique of causation, as it appears in Section VII of the Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, â€Å"On Necessary Connexion†, and their relation to the propositions of Section II, â€Å"Of the Origin of Ideas†, and Section X, â€Å"On Miracles†. I will offer criticisms and alternatives to Hume’s account(s) and conclude by picking which interpretation of Section VII best works for Hume, given certain arguments elsewhere in the Enquiry. The following is a summary of the aspects of the problem of induction as presented in the Enquiry which concern my discussion. Our assurance that certain sets of conditions are sufficient to produce certain effects is based on past experience that like has been conjoined with like. The belief in necessary connection entails (Hume will conclude that it amounts to) a belief that events similar to those experienced in the past will be accompanied by similar conjuncts. Such a belief may only be arrived at inductively, and induction does not discover necessity.1[1] This argument is against the supposed necessity of connection. â€Å"Necessity† here may refer to logical necessity, or it may not distinguish between this and physical necessity. To be physically necessary is to be sufficiently caused, but contingent upon the conditions of the event and the properties of all objects involved. Physical... ... but one about reason, that it is not this, but habit, which forms the basis of our beliefs. While it may be the case that denying an empirical fact may not result in a contradiction, Hume seems to be suggesting that it would still be irrational to do so. That abstracting from events to laws is a rational, though inductive, act seems hard to deny. Thus, at best, Hume can only show that it is experience which first provides the matter for reason. Sources Hume, David. An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding. (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1977) 1[1] David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1977), p.46 2[2] p.51 3[3] p.49 4[4] I think both Descartes and Kant had perfectly good a priori demonstrations of the existence of the self, which is all one needs to reach the concept of existence. 5[5] p.42

An Interpretation of John Keats’ To Autumn Essay

Introduction Poems by John Keats are a source of inspiration. He plays with his readers and takes them to places and times with his words. What inspiration does Keats bring? He inspire his readers to go beyond his words and discover a new world he creates. He makes his words so colorful and alive it is almost musical to the ear. When one reads Keats, he wonders what’s in his heart when he wrote his particular poem and makes him want to be in Keats world and senses. In this particular review, I tried to see Keats world of autumn from afar. A world detached, to objectively examine and look at autumn as Keats paints it with his words. I also wanted to get a perspective of Keat’s style with words, of how he uses them as a vehicle for others to journey to his world. In this same review, I tried to experience the world that Keats created and feel both the experience of his symbols and my comprehension of what he symbolizes autumn to be. The formal and thematic aspect of the poem will be commented on but this interpretation will be candid as I believe Keats wanted his poem read. 1 2 Throughout the three stanzas of the poem, Keats has maintained the ten syllable measure of each line, although, the foot measure of syllable stressed is a little slacked. As in the lines, â€Å"Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store? Sometimes whoever seeks abroad may find† and some more. Reading aloud the verse, Drows’d with the fume of poppies, while thy hook spares the next swath and all its twined flowers: I could not quite place the stress of the syllables to create a rhythmic sound. I call it literary license, Keats permit his reader to make a decision and choose the way to vocalize his poem. The first stanza is vibrant and tells us of bounty. It is a direct contradiction of autumn or fall as the season is the time when trees begin to bare its leaves and fruits are scarce. But in this poem, Keats describes autumn as the climax of summer, †Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness, Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun;† mist and mellow here are used as a welcoming scenario to a world filled with life and produce. The last word of the first line fruitfulness rhyming with bless on the third line and sustaining the rhythmic scale throughout the stanza gives a musical air as one reads the poem aloud. The stanza tells us also of a promise of continuity. â€Å"To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells with a sweet kernel; to set budding more, and still more, later flowers for the bees,† true to the rhythm of his verses, Keats described autumn as a time when seeds are planted for life to continue. It tells as of a beginning of a season, fresh and ready for a new experience in a manner where the season before it, which is summer, in the festivities of plenty and not as a dying season ready to be forgotten and left behind. Autumn in Keats† dedication receives Summer’s gift of plenty, it began as a climax of summer and therefore, promise to be a season 3 of new discoveries and not as bleak as shedding away the leaves of trees to forgetfulness. In the second stanza, the word flowers does not rhyme with any other words at the end of each line. I need to read the poem aloud and discover a rhythm for it to make the poem alive, it gets into a perfect rhyme with the word â€Å"spares’ if that’s where I put the measure at the end of the first line, thus, â€Å" Drows’d with the fume of poppies, while thy hook Spares / the next swath and all its twined flowers.† The same with the last two lines of the second stanza, â€Å"Or by a cyder-press, with patient look, Thou watchest the last oozings hours by hours,† by simply repeating the word, the seemingly ignored rhyme is captured. This is my personal preference of setting the rhythmic pattern of vocalizing the poem, although, the rhyme pattern of the three stanzas comes out to be ababacacaaa, ababcdecdde, and ababcdecdde, in this particular order. It can be observed that the first stanza follows an independent rhyme pattern from the other two stanzas. Keats may have done it intentionally to stress the change of tone of the second stanza that is presented as a question. Why could Keats have done this? As I get absorbed in the autumn scenario of the first stanza, feeling the cool air and seeing laden apple trees bend, the mossed cottage, the vines and more, feeling the climax of summer shared into the start of autumn, and as I get lost to the world that Keats painted with his words, somebody shoots a question like, †Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store?† and I was reminded that I am not alone. It was not even a question in the sense that Keats emphasized the beauty of the season being one that cannot be ignored. If he likened autumn as a stage of life’s journey and we choose the paths that we travel on, in the roads we took as we travel in this world, we met people to keep us company, 4 sometimes partway, the greatest thing maybe is to find beauty in life that keeps us company all through the journey. Reading the second stanza brings another question to my mind. What do I really seek for in this life? Why does Keats made me ask this when he wrote, â€Å"Sometimes whoever seeks abroad may find Thee sitting careless on a granary floor,† What Keats said in this line is that there are people who sought for things in this life away from where they really are and in fact, what they are seeking for is just within reach. Very clearly he meant happiness, he meant beauty of living, the beauty of living in the here and now. Keats wanted to tell his readers that we need not wait for what we can achieve in the future to experience the joy of being alive. We need only to be aware of the blessings we could find in the present to feel that joy that we seek for in our journey. The third stanza is a validation of the second stanza both in form and interpretation. I noticed that both have the same rhyme pattern and both starts with a question. It tells us of men looking out for joy too far out as in spring in autumn failing to notice that joy is just within reach. â€Å":Where are the songs of spring? Ay, where are they?†, Keats wanted us to know that in this life’s journey, happiness is not about the things we reap in the future but of finding happiness in every endeavor that we do without waiting for whatever fruits or rewards we earned as a result of our works. He tells us that like spring or summer or winter, autumn carries within itself its own music like the wailful choir of small gnats, the loud bleats of full-grown lambs, the songs of crickets, the whistles from garden croft, the twitter of the swallows. Keats wanted his readers to discover them. The choice of the word â€Å"wailful†, the reader can almost hear the liquid fall of tears of the gnats† mournful music. Sad, yet in Keats world of words 5 they represented life’s emotions that eventually gives meaning to everyone’s existence. He pictures autumn’s soft dying day with rosy hue and not with the bleak grey or the dying blackness of the welcoming dark, but of shades of the rose, full of life, full of promise, perhaps of another day ahead, a goodnights sleep, a beautiful dream, a walk in the moon? Or whatever the good life brings in the third part of man’ life. The poem is not necessarily strict with the academic form of the poem although as much as possible Keats wanted to adhere to the scholarly it dictates. In this form, the poem creates a character of free spirit and that refused to be tamed. The three stanzas o f the poem expresses a discipline. It follows a form respecting rhyme, measure, rhythm, color, and all the constituents of this form of literature. Yet, it does hesitate to lay away the conventional to express the soul of his expression as Keats diversion from the rhyming pattern to the rhyming pattern he followed on the second and third stanza. The syllabic measure of the words spares and flowers are left to the decision of the reader, making the reader an active participant to the interpretation of the poem. The three parts of the poem suggest the three stages of man’s life at a point of view, being at birth and early life, maturity and finally at the golden old age of man. But Keats only suggest, because all three speaks of seeking the joy of finding the beauty that life brings. The poem itself, as a form, is music to the ears. His play of rhythm, rhyme, and choice of words, in the context of emotionally attaching the self during its vocalization is like listening to the music of nature. The poem vividly expressed the colors of autumn using nature’s characters as in â€Å"rosy hue†. It does not boast with lengthy lines, numerous stanzas, academic words to express the simplicity of enjoying life, in life’s term. 6 Conclusion The poem â€Å"To Autumn† is a metaphor. Keats represented the season as man’s objects of his endeavors. In the same manner, the times of the seasons’ days represented man’s three stages in life. Why has Keats chosen autumn to represent ingredients of life’s journey? Maybe because of the colors it creates as the season journeys towards another. Maybe because autumn carries with itself the fruitful harvest of summer and links itself to the preparation winter does for a new life in spring. All these are speculations, and these speculations made me look into my life and my attitudes towards life as a journey. A lot of interpretations had considered â€Å"To Autumn† as one of the greatest odes that Keats had written. â€Å"Written in September of 1819, this piece is regarded as his most achieved ode.† 1. If all forms of writing, in different degrees of exertions aims to manipulate the reader’s mind to a certain mode of thoughtfulness, then Keats’ has manipulated mine into a romantic mode of communing with nature as a tool of reflection. He has vividly painted a picture of a season with words so successfully so that its form takes life and invited its readers to experience the joys of the season. It invited everyone to forget about worrying so much about future and take the joys of life in the here and now. 1 Analysis of Keats’ Poem To Autumn Essay. http://exampleesays.com/viewpaper/?wid=1795

Language Essay Essay

Introduction Language is universal way to express how a person feels. So of course, it is essential in cultures to express their individuality within life. Most of the time people do not put a lot of speculation on what mental processes may be taking place subconsciously. These mental processes allow a person to think, speak, and express their personal thoughts through language. In order to properly analyze that language, cognition must be a part of the mental processes too. In this essay, we will delve deeper into how language and cognition are associated. Language & Lexicon Language is an efficient and consequential use of information, which can be both comprehended and used by all living things. It is also the communication of thoughts to language. According to Merriam-Webster (2014), cognitive psychology can be defined as, â€Å"a branch of psychology concerned with mental processes (as perception, thinking, learning, and memory) especially with respect to the internal events occurring between sensory stimulation and the overt expression of behavior.† Accordingly, when a person or animal learns to understand through the use of language, and with the capacity of that language, there can be a cognitive process that helps to separate humans from animals. Language is completely generative, dynamic, structured, and communicative. In language, a lexicon is known as the vocabulary or psychological language. A lexicon can hold many different types of words, which can also include how to pronounce a word, and the parts of speech for each word (Galotti, 2014). A lexicon is used to help a person understand words that are spoken, and their meanings. The spoken words are compared to a person’s lexicon, which is how a person can understand what the word is. It could be near impossible to understand a language or vocabulary without lexicons. The use of lexicons are a very important part of a person’s language. Key Features of Language There are many key features that make a language. The following are the main properties: generative, communicative, dynamic, and structured. Language is considered generative because, a person has an unlimited capacity as to how they build their personal languages. Language allows people to communicate with one another, and it also allows other animals to communicate within the same species as well. Language is dynamic because it is forever changing, and also develops people into having larger vocabularies. Lastly, the structure of language plainly shows exactly how convoluted it truly is. The great thing about language, is that it can adapt and expand as a person learns more information. New words can be added to a language or vocabulary, while others can be erased or updated (Galotti, 2014). Language development is different for each person. Some people are able to learn language through their cognitive functions, but sometimes, it takes more time. For an example, with children, they have to learn everything, which includes their own names, how they are feeling, how to express feeling, and objects. But they also have to learn how to use the vocabulary they are learning. Lastly, the feature that influences more cognitive processes, mainly languages that can influence thoughts. It works in a rotating structure, language helps to influence thoughts, and language also helps to regulates thoughts. A person always uses language in order to interpret their own thoughts. The main reason that language influences thought is because thoughts are when a person is consciously speaking to themselves. Levels of Language There are four different levels of language in reference to the structure and processing, phonemes, words, sentences, and texts. Phonemes are the tiniest part of sounds or units that can be used by people in order to form words. Phonemes are a person’s sounds of speech, which is similar to each letter in the alphabet. The main dilemma with phonemes are that each person’s creation of them are different. When a person studies phonetics, they are studying speech sounds and their physical properties. Words help a  person make sense of phonemes. Words are made up of by multiple spoken sounds. A sentence is, of course, a set of words which complete themselves. A sentence will also allow a person to organize their thoughts when they are preparing to speak, or to write something. A text helps a person connect sentences in order to form a small amount of information, or a paragraph. These usually help to explain a specific topic, and always have to be about one topic. All four of these structures are a crucial part of language. To put this more easily, phonemes lead to words, words lead to sentences, and sentences lead to texts (Galotti, 2014). Analyzing the Role: Language Process & Cognitive Psychology In order to properly analyze the role of processing language, a person has to first understand cognitive psychology, to study mental processes. Mental processes give a person the ability to think, believe, perceive, solve problems, make decisions, remember, learn, reason, and adapt. By using these mental processes a person can begin to understand and comprehend language, and with that, the process of the language is used. If a person does not understand the language’s structure, that person will not have the capability to understand texts, sentences, words or phonemes, which all make up a language. With lack of perceptive abilities, a person may not comprehend language, with all of its entirety. Cognitive processes help determine how the language is processed within the brain. When a person begins to learn and understand language, the cognitive process is in use. Conclusion The cognitive process known as language drives a separation in between humans and other beings. The lexicon contains words in which people can use to compare other words or parts of speech. There are multiple key features of language. These key features, as stated above are, generative, communicative, dynamic, and structured. With all of these features, language can become very intricate. If a person were to completely understand each one of these key features, they will be able to understand and comprehend how necessary they are to be used within language. Also, it is crucial for a person to analyze the role that cognitive psychology plays within the process of language. Cognitive psychology is important in many aspects of a  person’s life, but especially in the language process. References: Cognitive Psychology. (2014). In Merriam-Webster. Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/cognitive%20psychology Galotti, K. M. (2014). Cognitive Psychology In and Out of the Laboratory (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.